Polydactyle Case Essay Example for Free

Polydactyle Case Essay Polydactyle is a genetic disorder that is caused by a gene on chromosome seven. Polydactyle is a condition were an individual has more than five digits per hand. Most cases are isolated and not related to any other disorder but some are related to others. The errors occur during fetal development and they are caused by on several mutations on a gene that is known as chromosome seven. Polydactlyle is Autosomal dominant meaning that an offspring can get this disease by having it passed down from just one parent. During normal embryonic development while the infant is still in the womb the hand of the infant will most likely form a shape of a paddle. Following six to seven weeks later the paddle hand will split into digits as we know as fingers also resulting in more toes than normal, more fingers than normal extra digit on hand and extra digit on foot. The separation process is excessive while creating the extra â€Å"segment†. Polydactyle is also just one of those genetic defects that underlays hereditary from a parent. Polydactyle is often found more usually with African Americans to get it instead of other ethnic backgrounds. Polydactyly occurs by its self by isolated conditions or in conjunction with other symptoms as one aspect of a multi-symptom diseases. There are several forms of isolated and several forms of Polydactyly; each of these, where the genetics is understood, is caused by an autosomal dominant gene. This means that since the gene is autosomal (not sex-linked), males and females are equally likely to inherit the trait. This also means that since the gene is dominant, children who have only one parent with the trait have a 50% chance of inheriting it. However, people in the same family carrying the same gene can have different degrees of Polydactyly. There are a number of treatments that are used for the disorder Polydactyl but many families tend to go one way with the disorder. Most families contact a Orthopedic Surgeons or a Plastic Surgeon. This specialist removes there childs extra digit when they are 1 to 2 years of age. But Polydactyly  varies in complexity. A minor procedure may correct small extra digits or those with a narrow base. However, when the base is broad or if the extra digit is rooted deeply in the hand, reconstructive surgery may be the best option when the child is old enough to safely undergo an elective procedure. Operating on the bone, joint, ligaments or tendons may be necessary to create the most functional hand possible for the child so there is not a lot of pain.

Harmonization of International Commercial Law

Harmonization of International Commercial Law SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT Introduction The international commercial law has grown and modified in twentieth century. Technological advances made international transactions easy and more efficient for the merchants to buy and sale across state borders. The move towards globalization comes with it several problems both for lawyers and legal systems. Outdated legal rules are obstacle to economic growth and technological development. Due to the economic demands there has always been a heavy tendency in international commercial law to uniform and harmonise. This assessment focuses on discussing the methods to achieve harmonization of international commercial law and the reasons of many areas of commercial law remain unharmonised. Harmonisation Harmonisation, is a process which may result in unification of law subject to a number of (often utopian) conditions being fulfilled, such as, for example, wide or universal geographical acceptance of harmonising instruments, and with wide scope of harmonising instruments which effectively substitute all pre-existing law. Harmonising instruments have two objectives. The first purpose is unification of law and the second purpose is creating a law reform when the current law unable to deal with developing commercial practices. The harmonisation of commercial law is considered a key factor in reducing the cost of doing business as it provides the certainty and predictability for the parties of a contract in international transactions.[1] Methods of Harmonisation A considerable number of methods came out to achieve these goals. These methods are; legislative (conventions, model laws and model legislative or treaty provisions), explanatory (legislative guides and legal guides for use in legal practice), and contractual (standard contract clauses and rules)[2] International Treaties or Convention International treaties or conventions are binding forces and will be applied directly but they are not effective unless it ratified by the nations. Treaties or conventions which represents hard law methods of harmonisation are the primary instruments. They usually embody a uniform law. Due to the international treaty reservations the degree of the uniformity decrease. Interpretation differences or mistakes may be dangerous for the uniformity of international conventions. The rules of international convention would classify the law applicable to the controversy, and the judge would make the selection of the applicable law of the jurisdiction which is highly foreseeable, fair and adequate. Conventions provide certainty of law, flexibility and adaptability however, there are some arguments against conventions. Individual nations do not intent to negotiate conventions as an equal partners. Because of this sovereignty problem may arise in the context of international commercial regulations. The negotiation and drafting process of international conventions are slowly and expensive process. Worldwide impact of conventions on domestic law reform appears to be less important impact than model laws or other soft law instruments. It is assumed that conventions decrease the competition between legal systems and regulatory arrangements. Conventions are specific and fragmentary in character. They lack coherence and consistency. Delays in ratification of the convention means it may take for a long time before the convention comes into force. They still dont have ability to react changing circumstances. They may create issues about their scope. The subject of the courts are interpretation of the statutory law and there is no guarantee that harmonised law will be interpreted in harmonised manner. International conventions are hard to amend in instances requiring a place to economic change or progress of technology or practice. Rigidity of the conventions during the treaty making process and their lack of flexibility discourages nations from implementing to international conventions. They announce uncertainty that no uncertainty existed before. Some examples of harmonising conventions are Vienna Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods , the Geneva Convention on Agency in the International Sale of Goods, UN Convention on International Bills of Exchange and International Promissory Notes, the Cape Town Convention on International Interests in Mobile Equipment. Model Laws Model laws are more flexible than treaties and have no legal force, so they have soft law character. Soft law, policy declarations, guidelines or codes of conduct that set standard of conduct and not directly enforceable. Therefore, they are advisory. Domestic legislation changed for international trade to provide solutions for the international transactions. The model laws are facultative harmonising instrument which are not legally operative. With or without amendment individual nations may adopt model laws entirely or partly. However, with respect to unification their use is limited as adopting countries are under no obligation either to apply the law or accept it without variation. Furthermore, model laws mainly benefit t those countries whose law is underdeveloped in the area covered by the model law.[3] Modern Laws are more appropriate for the unification and modernization of national laws. Flexibility of the modern laws makes them easier to negotiate than a text containing obligations can not be changed. UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration is a good example for model law. Large amount of jurisdiction have adopted it. In the modern global environment it is very powerful motivation for harmonization. Especially, for the developing countries which are moving from mixed or planned economies to a free market economy. Another successful instance in the area of international commercial law is the Model Law on Cross-Border Insolvency. Legislative Guides or Legal Guides They have soft law character. They can be very detailed but their effect is limited because of their non-binding nature. Governments and legislators are the users of legislative guides. Legislative guides are ideally suited to an organization like UNIDROIT. When it is not achievable or essential to develop set of rules, legislative guides may be an alternative for giving explanations in respect of contract drafting. International Business Practice Guides International business practice guides are addressed at professional and trade associations. Generally, guides are educational practices that discusses technical, economic and real background of legal problems. Also they explain and find available solutions for the legal concepts and concludes by making recommendations. International Trade Terms International trade terms promulgated by non-governmental organization. If they incorporated into a contract they can have the force of law. INCOTERMS rules codifying custom and usage such as the ICCs Uniform Custom and Practice for Documentary Credits. This is, obviously, a reference to codifications and restatements by international scholars and practitioners such as UPICC and PECL.[4] Restatements Its addresses and potential users are not only contract drafters, but national and international legislators, arbitral tribunals and courts as well. Restatements of contract law promulgated by scholars and experts. They are advisory and they have soft law character. Principle of European Contract Law (PECL) Principles of European Contract Law (PECL) was published by the Lando Commission in 1995. This commission consisted on European contract law academics. It aims   to   produce   European   Commercial   Code.   Principles   are   more   limited   in   scope   and   they dont   have   legal   force.   However,   contracting   parties   may   agree   to   give   their   contracts   binding   effect   about   their   contract   subject.   Many   countries   followed   their   instructions   as   a   model   law   reform   project   and   parties   to   a contract   chose   them   to   govern   their   contract.   They   contributed   a   key   role   to   the   development   of   European   Contract   Law. Unidroit   Principles   of   International   Commercial   Contracts   (UPICC) UPICC   represents   the   legislative   codification   of   restatement   of   a   law   of   international   commercial   contract,   but   do   not   have   the   force   of   law.   They   offer   a   set   of   rules   produced   by   scholars,   which   cover   all   important   areas   of   general   contract   law   and   appear   to   be   a   resource   for   those   courts   and   arbitral   tribunals   who   find   them   helpful.[5] Although   these   principles   are   not   binding,   they   have   managed   to   earn   recognition   around   the   world,   in   academic   circles   and   practice.   UPICC   can   response   the   questions   that   not   covered   by   the   CISG.   These   are   would   be   fraud,   authority   of   agents,   third   party   rights   and   others.   UPICC   is   more   comprehensive   instrument   than   CISG.   UPICC   often   applied   as   a   gap   filler   to   interpret   and   supplement   law   instruments   and   specifically   the   CISG. Institutions Intergovernmental   and   non-governmental   agencies   have   been   involved   in   the   harmonisation   process. International   Institute   for   the   Unification   of   Private   Law   (UNIDROIT) UNIDROIT   is   an   intergovernmental   agency   that   interested   with   not   only   commercial   law   but   also   whole   private   law.   Management   of   researches   and   drafting   conventions   are   the   purposes   of   UNIDROIT.   UNIDROIT   has   produced   conventions   which   designed   to   operate   besides   the   Vienna   Convention   on   Contracts   for   the   International   Sale   of   Goods   and   covering   international   factoring,   international   finance   leasing   and   agency.   UNIDROIT   consists   of   General   Assembly,   the   Governing   Council   and   the   Secretariat.   UNIDROIT   put   into   use   to   enforcement   of   international   agreement   or   convention   that   requires   the   approval   of   its   member   countries. The   problem   is   tha t   trade   law   rules   different   from   one   state   to another.   It   produced  Ã‚   a   Hague   Convention   which   uniform   law   on   international   sales. United   Nations   Commission   of   International   Trade   Law   (UNCITRAL) UNCITRAL   is   an   intergovernmental   agency   that   promulgates   conventions,   model   laws   and   other   instruments.   Especially,   it   shapes   a   model   law   which   implements   to   international   commercial   arbitration   when   each   party   to   the   arbitration   has  Ã‚   its   place   of   business   in   a   different   country.   UNCITRAL   also   organizes   the   activities   of   the   different   agencies   involved   in  Ã‚   international   trade   law.   UNCITRAL   aims   to   help   remove   barriers   to   international   trade.   The   most   important   product   which   is   constituted   by   UNCITRAL   is   the   Vienna   Convention   On   Contracts   for   the   International   Sale   of   Goods.   It   aims   to   harmonise   the   rules   governing   the   design   of  Ã‚   rights   and   duties   under   international   sales   contract. The   difference   between   UNCITRAL   and   UNIDROIT   is   UNIDROIT   was   set   up   to   promote   the   dynamic   harmonisation   of   private   law   and   also   including   commercial   law   whereas   UNCITRAL   is   a   specialist   body   of   United   Nations   devoted   to   the   harmonisation   of   international   trade   law. International   Chamber   of   Commerce (ICC) ICC   which   has   an   non-governmental   body   promotes   trade   by   opening   markets   and   encouraging   the   flow   of   capital.   Having   a   non   law   producing   body,   ICC   deals   with   unifying   and   harmonising   commercial law   using   soft   law   methods.   Therefore,   ICC   does   not   focus   on   the   preparation   of   international   conventions   or model   laws.   ICC   promotes   uniform   trade   terms,   uniform   rules   and   model   forms   which   are   adopted   by   contracting   parties.   As   a   result   of   this   ICC   would   not   convenient   for   the   development   of   uniform   rules, preference of   competing   property   rights   or   the   jurisdiction   of   courts.   It   accomplishes   legal   studies   on   topic   and   provides    and   arbitration   service   for   disputes. It   represents   two   important   international   trading   instruments.   In   the   area   of   international   dispute   resolution   the   ICC   Court   of   International   Arbitration   is   a   leading   institutions.   These   are   INCOTERMS   and   The   Uniform   Customs and   Practice   for   Documentary   Credits.   They   do   not   have   any   legal  Ã‚   status   and   reach   their   legal   effect   through   contract..   INCOTERMS   sets   out   rights   and   duties   for   the   parties   of   international   contract.   ICC   rules   has   a   fairly   high   influence. New   Lex   Mercatoria New   lex   mercatoria   is   very   different   from   medieval   lex   mercatoria.   New   lex   mercatoria   can   be   derived   from   various   sources.   The   growth   of   international   trade   and   the   influence   of   mercantile   usage   have   led   several   influential   scholars   to   conclude   that   there   exist   a   body   of   uncodified   international   commercial law,   the   new   lex   mercatoria,   which   has   normative   force   in   its   own   right   and   is   dependent   neither   on   incorporation   by   contract   nor   on   adoption   by   legislation   or   judicial   reception   in   a   national   legal   system.[6] Now   both   professional   associations   and   legal   scholars are   working   for   the   codification   of   new   lex   mercatoria. It   is   suggested   that   new   lex   mercatoria   might   consist   of   international   trade   usages.   It   has   been   suggested   that   they   might   include   concepts   such   as   UNIDROIT   Principles   of   International   Commercial   Contracts   and   the   ICCs   Uniform   Custom   and   Practice   for   Documentary   Credits.[7] Reasons   of   Unharmonised There   may   be   some   obstacles   about   harmonisation   process   that   it   causes   international   commercial   law   to   remain   unharmonised.   These   obstacles   are   would   be   differences   in   political   view,   language   difficulties,   personality   clashes   and   one   sides   concern   about   another   side   that   taking   too   much   dominant   role. Harmonisation   is   lengthy,   slow   and   expensive   process.   Preparation   of   instruments   of   harmonization   requires   experience   of   the   time   and   hard   work.   This   is   also   correct   for   all   amendments   and   updates.   It   is   claimed   that   owing   to   the   trend   of   budgetary   constraints   cause   that   legal   harmonisation   may   lead   to   legal   fragmentation.   Economic   efficiency   needs   to   take   into   account. Sometimes   choosing   wrong   type   of   harmonising   instruments   is   also   another   reason   for   harmonisation   failure. Harmonising   efforts   have   limited   scope.   These   efforts   to   legislate   for   specific   topics ,   such   aspects   of   the   law   of   sale   or   unfair   contract   terms,   take   no   account   of   the   fact   that   the   treatment   of   such   topics   in   domestic   law   may   be   rooted   in   the   particular   legal   traditions   of   individual legal   systems.[8] Disparities   between   common   law   and   civil   law   traditions,   socialist   and   capitalist   systems   and   developed   and   developing   countries   creates   problem.   Differences   between   national   legal   systems   also   caused   international   commercial   law   to   remain   unharmonised.   Domestic   legal   systems   which   need   to   implement   the   harmonised   law   should   take into   account.   Although   the   approaches   to   contractual   interpretation   are   the   same,   the   exercise   in   practice   could   be   quite   contrary,   due   to   the   differences  Ã‚   between   civil   law   and   common   law   systems.   The   problem   is   distilliation   of   the   best   legal   rules   from   different   legal   systems   regardless   of   being   testedà ‚   in   the   laboratory   of   an   actual   system. International   contracts   that   considers   the   interests   of   both   parties,   needs   to   contribute   a   fair   balance   between   civil   law   and   common   law   systems   to   which   both   parties   belong   to.   Therefore,   it   is   difficult   to   provide   international   consensus. In   contract   law area   there   is   a   lack   political   support   of   harmonising   instruments   in   national   law. Some   scholars   have   argued   that   the   mere   existence   of   different   national   laws   is   a   reason   to   engage   in   harmonization   process.   Professor Stephan points out that divergences in national laws may cause legal   risk. In   his   view,   such   legal   risk   can   encourage   opportunism   by   commercial   parties   who   may,   for   instance,   race   to   litigate,   in   a   forum   that   will   suit   their   interests   in   case   something   goes   wrong   with   the   transaction.   One of the   pitfalls   of   the   existence   of  Ã‚   legal risk   is   that   at   the   dividing   line   between   risky and   non-risky   transactions   many   parties   may   desist   from   commercial.   Accordingly,   there   may   be   merit   in   reducing   legal risk   to   f oster.   commerce[9] However,   harmonisation   does   not   aim   to   bring   a   mechanical   lowering   of   risk.   It   may   optimize   the   risk,   rather   than   its   elimination. Domestic   law   is   capable   of   easy   amendment,   once   a   harmonised  Ã‚   instrument   has   been   accomplished,   signatories   are   locked   into   it   until   a   new   instrument   comes   into   force.   Unless   whole   individual   nations   adopt   the   new   instrument,   there   may   be   more   divergence   then   there   was   previously.   Harmonising   institutions   needs   to   deal   with   this   problem.   They   need   to   prevent   the   crystallization   of   harmonisation.   There   are   two   aspects   about this   problem.   First   of   all,   excessive   time   taken   to   create   international   legal   instruments.   Secondly,   it   is   excessively   takes   long   time   for   nations   to   ratify   the   harmonized   law. Many   lawyers   remain   doubtful   and   hostile   to   the   harmonisation   attempts.   Lawyers   and   legal   systems   are   unwilling   to   give   up   their   own   laws.   It   is   considered   by   them   that   their   own   laws   are   superior.   It   is   probably   they   also   scare   that   their   national   laws   would   lose   their   dominant   position. Due   to   the   differences   in national   laws   cross-border   transactions   are   limited.   Also   nations   which   have   a   strong   sense   of   superiority   of   their   own   laws   might   unwilling   to   changes   where   these   are   limited   to   transactions   between   businesses   in   different  Ã‚   states. Issues   of   sovereignty   may   arise   in   the   context   of   international   trade   regulation.   Also   some   language   difficulties   creates   obstacles   for   harmonisation   process.   Accurate   and   clear   drafting   is   very   important   to   prevent   misunderstandings.   Planning   and   management   project   of   harmonisation   process   is  Ã‚   not   easy.   Meetings   may   not   be   successful   to   make   essential   progress. Problems   with   Institutions There   are   some   arguments   about   harmonization   interests   the   very   nature   of   the   bodies   that   play   a   role   in   this   area.   These   institutions   are   bodies   of   experts   and   can   not   please   with   traditional   democratic   standards   imposed   on   national   legislatures.   They   are   not   accountable   like   national   bodies.   This   is   the   weakness   of   institutions.   Lobbies   and   interest   groups   may   influence   the   law   in   favour of   themselves.   The   less   powerful   ones   would   not   be   able   to   say   any   things   in   the   drafting   process   so,   international   conventions   and   legislatures   are   saddled   with   a   take   it   or   leave   it   options.   Duplication   of   efforts,   co-o rdination   of   work,   inconsistency   of   policy   and   waste   of   resources   are   the  Ã‚   other   problems   that   institutions   need   to   deal   with   during   the   legal   harmonisation   process. Conclusion The   harmonisation   of   international   commercial   law   does   not   completely   eliminate   conflicts   but   it   helps   to   reduce   them. A   proper   reform   of   our   commercial   law   requires   a   careful   study   of   developments   in   other   jurisdictions   in   both   civil   law   and   common   law.   It   is   assumed   that   perfect   harmonisation   is   not   an   achievable   target.   All   states   have   different   national   strategic   interests   therefore,   full   harmonisation   is   politically   impossible  Ã‚   in   certain   areas   of   law. Bibliography Books Goode, R. , Kronke, H. , McKendrick, E. , Transnational   Commercial   Law;   Text,   Cases   and   Materials,   1st   edn. , Oxford,   Oxford   University   Press,   2007 -Goode, R. , McKendrick, E. , Goode   On   Commercial   Law; Edited   And   Fully   Revised   By   Ewan   McKendrick,   4th   Edition,   Penguin   Books,   2010 -Bradgate, R. , Commercial   Law, Oxford,Oxford   University   Press,   2005 Journals -Mistelis, L. , Is Harmonisation a Necessary Evil? The Future of Harmonisation and New Sources of International Trade Law,   2001 Faria, J.A.E. ,   Future Directions of Legal Harmonisation and Law Reform : Stormy Seas or Prosperous Voyage? Unif.   Law   Rev,   2009 -Osborne, P.J. ,   Unification or Harmonisation: A Critical Analysis of the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods,  Ã‚   August 2006 Korzhevskaya, A. Do We Still Need a Convention In The Field Of Harmonisation Of The International Commercial Law ,   FESCO Transportation Group, (Moscow, Russia) 2014 Gopalan, S. , From Cape   Town   to   the   Hague: Harmonization   Has   Taken   Wing, August   2015 [1] L. Mistelis,   Is Harmonisation a Necessary Evil? The Future of Harmonisation and New Sources of International Trade Law,   2001,   p.4 [2] J.A.E Faria, Future   Directions   of   Legal   Harmonisation   and   Law   Reform : Stormy   Seas   or Prosperous   Voyage , 2009, p.8 [3] P.J. Osborne, A   Critical   Analysis   of   the   United   Nations   Convention   on   Contracts   for   the   International   Sale   of   Goods   1980,   August   2006,   p.6 [4] R.   Goode,   H. Kronke,   E. McKendrick,   Transnational   Commercial   Law; Text,   Cases   and   Materials, 1st   edn. , Oxford   University   Press,   2007,   p. 169 [5] A.Korzhevskaya, Do   We   Still   Need   a   Convention   In   The   Field   Of   Harmonisation   Of   The International   Commercial   Law,   FESCO   Transportation   Group   (Moscow, Russia) , 2014,   p.89 [6] Goode   and   E. McKendrick,   Goode   on   Commercial   Law,   Edited   and   Fully   Revised   by   Ewan   McKendrick,   4th   edn. , Penguin   Books,   p.20 [7] R. Bradgate,   Commercial   Law,   3rd   Edition,   Oxford   University   Press,   2005,   p.17 [8] R. Bradgate,   Commercial   Law,   3rd   Edition,   Oxford   University   Press,   2005,   p.17 [9] S. Gopalan,   From   Cape   Town   to   the   Hague: Harmonization   Has   Taken   Wing,   August   2015,   p.12

Cunstract, Intirnel, end Extirnel Velodoty :: dete, ivodinci, stady

Cunstract velodoty hes tu du woth istebloshong currict upiretounel miesaris fur thi cuncipts biong stadoid (Yon 2009, p. 40). Yon (2009), wrotis thet risierchirs cen ompruvi cunstract velodoty cunstract velodoty cen bi of maltopli suarcis uf dete os impluyid (troengaletoun uf dete), istebloshong cheon uf ivodinci, end rivoiwong thi ripurt woth thior onfurments (p. 41). In mekong sari thet uni cen drew e mienong end asifal onfirincis frum scuris un pertocaler onstramints uf dete cullictoun end tu dimunstreti thi eccarecy uf thior fondongs, Criswill (2013) elsu edvoci thi asi uf mimbir chickong end troengaletong dete (p. 201). Qaerm (2009) end Serqaeh (2008) buth asid sivirel dete suarcis (ontirvoiws, ducamints, midoe, end ontirnit) on thior stadois. Thi troengaletoun uf dete suarcis on thior stadois elluw fur sivirel ivodinci tu bi cullictid un thior cesis andir stady, cuncipts ur veroeblis wiri clierly end pricosily ixpleonid end upiretounelozid. Thos privintid oneccarecois end embo gaotois darong thi foild stady end elluwid fur lergi vulami uf dete tu bi cullictid end asid by buth onqaorirs. Bat buth ergaid thet dai tu tomi end fonencoel cunstreonts, thiy cuald nut rivoiw thi dete cullictid woth kiy onfurments tu currict eny mosteki, oneccarecois, clerofocetouns whoch tu sumi ixtint thrietinid thi velodoty uf thior stadois. 8.2 Intirnel Velodoty Thos rifirs tu istebloshong e ceasel riletounshop, whiriby cirteon cundotouns eri shuwn tu lied tu uthir cundotouns (Yon, 2009, p.40). Thi guel uf siikong tu isteblosh ceaseloty os muri ivodint on ixplenetury ur ceasel stadois rethir then discroptovi ur ixpluretury stadois (obod). Thos os dai tu thi lomotid cuntrul risierchirs hevi uvir ixtreniuas ur andisorebli veroeblis thet onflainci thi riletounshop bitwiin thi veroeblis. Estebloshong ceaseloty cen bi ompruvi darong thi dete enelysos stegi whiri thi risierchir niid tu du pettirn metchong, ixplenetoun baoldong, eddriss rovel thiurois end thi asi uf lugoc mudils (p.41). Buth Qaerm (2009) end Serqaeh (2008) stadois dod nut siik tu isteblosh ceaseloty bitwiin thior ondipindint end dipindint veroeblis. Buth stadois eri seod tu bi ixpluretury on netari. Fur ixempli, Qaerm (2009) stady siik tu discrobi thi meon ecturs end thi stretigois thiy impluyid tu pash thi dumistoc voulinci boll untu thi guvirnmint eginde fur ettintoun whiries Ser qaeh (2008) stady siik tu discrobi thi meon fecturs effictong thi omplimintetoun uf thi foscel dicintrelozetoun pulocy on Akaepim Suath dostroct uf Ghene. 8.3 Extirnel Velodoty Yon (2009) difonis ixtirnel velodoty es istebloshong thi dumeon tu whoch e stady’s fondongs cen bi ginirelozid biyund thi ommidoeti cesi stady (p.

truth within experience Essay -- essays research papers

Truth Within Experiments   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Milgram and Asch reports about obedience are different. In Milgrim’s report he was trying to say that people will do something to the extreme even if they are hurting someone or something. The experiment he decided to construct shows just that. His experiment shows that will power can go a long way. Asch’s reported experiment showed that people can be easily influenced by a group of people. And if the one person feels alone in a group situation the majority is correct. Social pressure is the factor in this case.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The basic question in Milgram’s report comes down to who are we and should we obey when it interferes with our conscience? Based on his writing about what he learned in his experiment average people learned more about themselves and how much will power they had. On the other hand, Asch hoped to learn the extent of peer pressure. Will a group of people alter the thinking of one individual? He states that the tests also illustrate a new kind of attack on the problem and some of the more subtle questions that it raises ( 307). Each psychologist designed their own unique experiment to study and research the answers to their questions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Migram’s first experiment consists of two people in a laboratory. The learner is sent to a room and is strapped into an electric chair. He is also told he is to listen to a list of paired words to remember and if he gets them...

Love and Desire in A Midsummer Night’s Dream :: Midsummer Nights Dream

Love and Desire in A Midsummer Night’s Dream Some of the most prominent themes in A Midsummer Night’s Dream are the omnipresence of love and desire and the tendencies of characters to manifest their defining traits. Helena and Hermia are two perfect examples of this. Hermia is the lover, and Helena the desirer, and both thrive off of their obsessions. In fact, both women are so tied to these traits that when they are taken away, their characters deflate and fall static. From the beginning, Hermia defiantly denies her father’s attempts at an arranged marriage, in favor of her whirlwind romance with and marriage to Lysander. In her defense, she uses words of chastity and moral purity to claim her fidelity and love towards Lysander and inability to wed Demetrius â€Å"I know not by what power I am made bold / nor how it may concern my modesty† (pp). The concern, or befitting, of Hermia’s modesty, by not wedding Demetrius, is protecting the very essence of her womanhood from someone whom she feels isn’t worth of the ultimate consummation of love – marriage (and the subsequent sex). This is continued in her next dialogue, where Hermia states that she would rather die â€Å"quote† (pp) or become a nun than give up her virgin â€Å"privilege† â€Å"quote† (pp). Hermia’s claims of â€Å"privilege† and â€Å"sovereignty† validate her chastity and moral purity as something that shoul d only be shared with Lysander, not Demetrius. However, the sovereignty of Hermia’s claims also fits in with Demetrius’ arguments regarding his rights to Hermia’s hand in marriage: â€Å"quote† (pp). Demetrius’ use of â€Å"sovereignty† and â€Å"right† turns the supposed â€Å"love† of Hermia and Demetrius’ arranged marriage into a legal contract, where Hermia is property and social placeholder instead of a loving companion. Lysander pitches in to support Hermia’s claims of purity â€Å"Demetrius, I’ll avouch it to his head..† â€Å"quote† (pp). Here, Lysander claims that Demetrius slept with Helena and is therefore a â€Å"spoiled and inconstant man† â€Å"quote† (pp). OED. EDITORS gloss â€Å"spotted† as â€Å"morally stained† â€Å"quote† (pp). The Oxford English Dictionary also defines â€Å"spotted† as â€Å"something disgraceful.† This only emphasizes the uncouth premarital and in Hermia’s line of logic, immoral relationship between Demetrius and Hermia. This moral impurity is a compromise to Hermia’s chastity and perpetuates her dedication to love that is already evident in this passage. Another instance of Hermia’s dedication to her chastity and purity as a demonstration of comes in II.

Importunate Persuasions: Anxiety of Authorship and the Female Fight for Self-Sovereignty

In Margaret Cavendish’s essay The Blazing World she creates a world of her own where she rules as a sovereign and is afforded a power that would not otherwise be possible for her: â€Å"†¦if any should like the world I have made and be willing to be my subjects, they may imagine themselves such, and they are such, I mean in their minds†¦; but if they cannot endure to be subjects, they may create worlds of their own and govern themselves as they please† (1785).In this passage, Margaret Cavendish exposes her own idiosyncratic philosophy concerning her position in society as a woman, female author and a member of a court that was ostracized. By prolifically writing about herself, she attempts to exercise her right to a voice and uses it as an instrument of power and resistance in an oppressed and powerless situation. However, her language bears traces of an internalization of the oppressive social structure and an anxiety of authorship1 that prevents her from suc cessfully establishing herself as autonomous.In this essay, I will attempt to demonstrate how Margaret Cavendish, through her poetry and prose, endeavors to achieve self-sovereignty through singularity but fails due to fear of social alienation from not just the patriarchal hegemony but also from the women of her era that perpetuated it. In The Poetess’s Hasty Resolution, Margaret Cavendish establishes herself as not only a poet but a gifted one at that. â€Å"Reading my verses, I liked them so well/Self-love did make my judgment to rebel/Thinking them so good, I thought more to write† (1-3).Here, Margaret introduces her desire for self-sovereignty and her initial willingness to exercise it through the vocation of writing. She writes of a â€Å"self-love† initiated by the sound of her own voice and empowers her to fight against the status quo, â€Å"to rebel†. She decides to go about her rebellion through writing and putting forth the female voice. Howeve r, she compromises her own self-adulation with the criticism that she receives. She recognizes and notes that â€Å"others† appose her voicing her opinion: â€Å"Considering not how others would them like† (4).By interjecting this criticism in with her self-congratulatory treatise, she refutes them with an impervious tone in her language, as if she intended to rebel and dismiss the reader’s response to her style. Conversely, she also acknowledges them, within the first four lines of her poem, which alludes to a deep concern. This indicates a woman who cares deeply for what others think. This concern could be due to her position in society. Being the wife of a Duke and lady to an ostracized Queen, it was well within her interest to be aware of her social milieu.Moreover, the aristocracy was used to people caring about what they thought and effecting how others acted and spoke, in other words, exercising their hegemony. While she is amongst this power structure, s he pushes the limits of her position and acceptance by speaking out and seeks to establish agency, which was not readily afforded to women in the seventeenth century. Even though Margaret Cavendish’s rank was high enough to enjoy an element of immunity, she expresses concern over the fragility of her position.In A True Relation of My Birth, Breeding and Life Margaret appreciates how the breadth of her status is afforded to her through marriage, â€Å"second wife to the Lord Marquis of Newcastle, for my lord having had two wives, I might easily have been mistaken, especially if I should die and my lord marry again† (1780). Her language seems humble yet uncertain. One could postulate that this uncertainty is due to her position being conditional of a male counterpart. In her texts, she relies heavily upon a male for information and education.In A True Relation†¦ she diminishes her own ability â€Å"†¦I had a natural stupidity† (1779) and relays how she w ould be dependent upon a male member of her household to explain matters to her: â€Å"†¦and when I read what I understood not, I would ask my brother†¦ he being learned, the sense of meaning thereof† (ibid). Quickly following this passage, she resorts to gender performance1: â€Å"†¦my serious study could not be much, by reason I took great delight in attiring, fine dressing and fashions† (ibid). By positing herself within a socially accepted arena for women, she at once becomes less offensive to her female readership.However, she shows her â€Å"anxiety of authorship† that Sarah Gilbert and Susan Gubar define as a female author’s anxiety of being judged by male readers, critics, etc. thus they will compromise their own voice in an attempt to placate the male gaze2 and save themselves from alienation: â€Å"Her battle, however, is not against her (male) precursor’s reading of the world but against his reading of her. In order to de fine herself as an author she must redefine the terms of her socialization†, (Gilbert and Gubar, 2027).Gilbert and Gubar’s solution for this is a female author must replace the male precursor or influence with a female, at once helping to her to identify with her own sex and giving her an alliance in which to fight patriarchal control. However, if women themselves perpetuate male hegemony, this can prove difficult. In The Blazing World, Margaret creates a new world in order to experience and exercise the ambition and power that she desired. This new world becomes a metaphor for the real world with which she parallels it.In this new world, it is finally safe for her to tackle male hegemony head on and she attempts to do this with analogies of what men become. In her customized world, men take on animal characteristics. Some examples are: â€Å"worm-men†¦fox-men†¦ant-men†¦ape-men† (1781) most of which could be considered derogatory and most certainly diminutive. By ‘othering’ the male species and making them sub-human, Margaret can successfully exercise control in her realm. She also employs this tactic in The Hunting of the Hare in which Wat, a male, is a hare being hunted and assuming a secondary and fragile position. However her anxiety of authorship recurs.After assigning animal counterparts for the male species in The Blazing World, she quickly reiterates that she indeed receives power from the emperor. The empress and the Duchess, both as Margaret in a fragmented state, are informed and educated by priests and statesmen, both male, of the affairs of the government and the church. These figures, which could arguably also represent elements of Margaret’s own psyche particularly the internalized male gaze, attempt to justify their exclusion of women from places of worship and matters of the state as they are â€Å"importunate persuasions† or threatening figures of change (1782).Furthermore, when sh e herself describes the power one could exercise in their own world, she does so by using masculine pronouns; â€Å"he may create a world of what fashion and government he will†¦as he pleases†¦as he thinks best†¦also he may alter that world†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (1784). Thus, Margaret once again crumbles under the pressure of anxiety of authorship due to fear of social backlash. In a previously quoted passage, Margaret Cavendish uses ‘reason’ as the justification for her self-diminution: â€Å"†¦my serious study could not be much, by reason I took great delight in attiring, fine dressing and fashions† (1779).OED defines reason as â€Å"A statement of some fact (real or alleged) employed as an argument to justify or condemn some act, prove or disprove some assertion, idea, or belief †. However, her usage of the word ‘reason’ evolves. ‘Reason’ later becomes the conduit for her creation of the world in which she can rule as a sovereign, as â€Å"Margaret the First†: â€Å"This is the reason, why I added this†¦to my philosophical observations† (1781). Her language when referring to herself in The Blazing World is authoritarian: â€Å"I shall account myself as a happy creatoress† (1780); â€Å"authoress of a whole world† (1784), etc.Although initially she claims to merely be a scribe to the empress of this imaginary world, there is evidence that Cavendish actually sees herself as the empress. In the first paragraph she sees two worlds, the world in which she exists as Margaret Cavendish and the Blazing World, as antipodes of each other, thus making them parallel: â€Å"†¦and joined them as two worlds at the ends of their poles† (1780). She goes on to describe the world of her creation: â€Å"it is a description of a new world†¦a world of my own creating, which I call the Blazing World† (ibid).As she posits herself in an ultimate position of pow er as â€Å"creatoress† and â€Å"authoress† (idem) she herself is sovereign, thus the empress could easily be interpreted as her. This is further evidenced within the romantic beginning of the story. The empress is heralded as a goddess and the object of the emperor’s affection, paralleling the empress’s story with that of her own: receipt of power and title through marriage. By aligning herself with a female figure of power, she at once establishes a female precursor but also empowers herself in fighting the alienation of hegemonic criticism.The metaphor of this alignment is interesting. One would figure that she had a very powerful female ‘precursor’ in Queen Henrietta Maria; however the Queen’s power was jeopardized by Charles’ execution and her banishment. Also, this particular alignment had proved precarious as it caused the loss of her and her husband’s estate (albeit temporarily). Thus, it was necessary for Margar et to create a new female figure of authority with which she could associate herself. Her internal conflict of desperately wanting to speak out but being checked by fear of societal repercussions is exercised in interesting ways.Margaret is aware of the perpetuation of the male hegemony through women and illustrates her frustrations through her texts. Women would most likely make up Margaret’s ideal readership; however one can surmise that they have also been the source of a great deal of her criticism. In The Poetess’s Hasty Resolution, Margaret signifies the ‘she’ as the source of her criticism: Will you, said she, thus waste your time in vain On that which in the world small praise shall gain? For shame, leave off, said she, the printer spare He’ll lose by your ill poetry, I fear.Besides the world hath already such a weight Of useless books, as it is overfraught. Then pity take, do the world a good turn, And all you write cast in the fire and bur n. (9-16) In this incendiary passage, Margaret exposes many elements of oppression perpetuated by women upon women. The idealized female precursor and intended source of support, demeans Cavendish’s art and directly exercises male hegemonic social pressures upon her. First, they attempt to induce fear in her of women’s destructive capability upon their husbands if they do not adhere to gendered social norms.Second, these critics try to instill her with an anxiety of influence4 by purporting that there are enough things to read in the world and she is not worthy of authorship. Finally, the female critic entreats her to immediately quit her education and stifle her ambitions, as knowledge and ambition are not becoming of a lady. However, Margaret reifies her own anxiety and realizes the danger of this â€Å"importunate persuasion† (ibid) and persists: â€Å"Then all in haste I to the press it sent/Fearing persuasion might my book prevent† (19-20). The betra yal by her own sex does little to incite camaraderie in Margaret.To empower herself against an oppressive but generative hegemonic control that is elicited upon her by other women, she attempts to distinguish herself through singularity. â€Å"I would dislike if any should follow my fashions, for I always took delight in a singularity† (1779). Thus, one may understand why Margaret would desire to set herself apart from her sex, as they did not prove to be an agreeable group with which to identify. However, to be alienated and excluded was a dire circumstance for a woman in seventeenth century Britain.She had already experienced banishment and understood how stringent the repercussions proved for stepping outside the societal ideal. Thus, if Margaret Cavendish could achieve renown and be considered excellent, she could achieve social currency. This accreditation would be what she would need to stave off the scorn of the more strict members of society. She achieved the respect of some accomplished members of society, mainly men, and cunningly realized that the best place with which to exercise her ‘reason’ was through her status in society.The complex and uncomfortable dynamic of desiring to remain in a position of influence and imperatively needing to utilize her own voice regardless of the heavy hegemonic resistance against it is a brave endeavor but a futile one. In order to remain amongst a group, one must adhere to its rules and be amenable to its policies. Although, Margaret Cavendish couldn’t fully achieve self sovereignty in her own time, she provided future female writers with a precursor to the feminist writers what would succeed her. Through her struggle she gives other ‘authoresses’ the support she herself would have appreciated.Although, she herself never achieved self sovereignty through singularity, she proved to be more than just a â€Å"great emulator† (1779). Works Cited Butler, Judith. â€Å"Gend er Trouble† Leitch 2488-2501. Gilber, Sandra M. and Susan Gubar â€Å"The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination. † Leitch 2023-2035. Greenblatt, Stephen, ed. The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Vol. 1. 8th ed. New York, NY: W. W. Norton and Company, 2006. 1773-1784. Leitch, Vincent, ed. The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism. New York, NY: W. W. Norton and Company, 2001. Footnotes 1.Gender performance is a theory derived by Judith Butler which states that the everyday actions of women and men are a performance of societal expectations and gendered norms and further more that this performance perpetuates the social constructs places upon us that define what it means to be male or female, man or woman, i. e. : men refusing to cry, women wearing high heels etc. 2. The male gaze is a poststructuralist feminist theory stemming from Michel Foucault’s utilization of the panopticon in surveillance society. T his theory places male hegemony in the position of the panopticon and women ‘self correct’ under its gaze.

Compare and Contrast the Aca’s 5 Moral Principles (Autonomy, Nonmaleficence, Beneficence, Justice, Fidelity) with Clinton & Ohlschlager’s 7 Virtues on Co P. 248-249.

The American Counseling Association has identified several moral principles to assist in guiding their members and others interested in the helping professions. Of these the following five will be compared and contrasted with various biblical ethics identified by Clinton & Oblschalager (2002) as being seven virtues (pp. 248-249): autonomy, nonmaleficence, beneficence, justice, and fidelity. The seven virtues are composed of the following: accountability and truth-telling, responsibility to love one another, fidelity to integrity, trustworthiness in keeping confidentiality, competent beneficence, humility in justice, and sufferability (ibid). Autonomy is defined as â€Å"the freedom of clients to choose their own direction† (Corey, G. , Corey, M. S. , & Callanan. 2007, p. 17). Nonmaleficence is the avoidance of actions which may hurt clients (ibid). Beneficence is promotion of the welfare of others (p. 18). Justice refers to being fair in equal distribution of resources and care without biases of any type (ibid). Fidelity refers to one keeping their word as a professional (ibid) The virtue of accountability and truth-telling shares the similarity with the moral principle of fidelity in that both mandate being truthful in our words and promises. Above that this virtue also requires that one be held accountable to another counselor or one’s pastor (Clinton & Oblschalager, p. 248). The virtue of the responsibility to love one another shares with the principle of nonmaleficence the characteristic of doing others no harm, yet goes beyond that to include the Spirit given gift of demonstrating love for one another (ibid). The virtue of humility in justice basically mirrors the principle of justice. Both these traits should mean the counselor will never judge the individual seeking help and to never discriminate in the allocation of resources. The virtue of humility in justice also entails remembering to be humble in emulation of the Messiah who only sought for others to be restored to a right relation with God (p. 249). Competent beneficence is a virtue comparable to the principle of beneficence. They both are focused on the wellbeing f others and on the awareness of the counselor to be culturally competent (ibid). The virtues of trustworthiness in keeping confidentiality, fidelity to integrity and sufferability can be placed side by side with the principle of nonmaleficence since they all entail the mandate of not allowing the client to suffer any harm due to the counselor’s words or actions. Fidelity to integrity also entails the counselor’s personal integrity as needing to accompany h is professional integrity (Clinton & Oblschalager, p. 248). Ultimately, the clients we encounter as Christian counselors do have autonomy to choose this principle and go in whatever direction they choose to go. Nevertheless, this is not a shared characteristic with any of the seven virtues. In our practice we are to recognize that God has moral absolutes and a perfect way in which God has chosen for us to walk (Clinton & Oblschalager, p. 246). To utilize the seven virtues we must remember that doing good, telling truth, loving one another, and the rest of the virtues all point directly towards our creator. Therefore, although our clients may choose to ignore our godly counsel, we are in debt to them and our vows of service to God to inform them and encourage them to cease from sinful behaviors and to turn those behaviors around to reflect behaviors demonstrated . References Clinton, T. , & Ohlschlager, G. (Eds. ). (2002). Competent Christian Counseling: Foundations and Practice of Compassionate Soul Care. Colorado Springs, CO: WaterBrook Press. Corey, G. , Corey, M. S. , & Callanan, P. (2007). Issues and Ethics in the Helping Professions (7th ed. ). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole